A WalMart Monopoly Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

A WalMart Monopoly - Case Study Example Growth accelerated by takeovers and buyouts of other retail chains also fuel the power of the corporation to grow bigger. The study analyses three articles on Wal-Mart to assess their role in various economic scenarios. The author contends that a rural community where Wal-Mart has entered has had adverse effects. Wal-Mart is another stage in a long process where the retailers business has shifted from the local stores. Sears catalog was one, increased prevalence of the automobile giving access to local towns was another. The shopping malls changed the way America shopped. In the 1960s discount supermarkets made their entry, including among them Wal-Mart. Wal-Mart's strategy was to open a large store in a small town, within easy distance of its distribution centers. It took them 30 years to go national. The author has studied Wal-Mart and its impact extensively to devise strategies for his clients, Iowa retailers. The study has spanned 34 towns in Iowa, all of which has had a Wal-Mart store for at least 10 years. General merchandise stores in towns with no Wal-Mart suffered immediately when Wal-Mart opened. It is generally believed that people in towns with no Wal-Mart traveled out to towns that did . The effect has also been seen on eating and drinking places, which had been more frequented in Wal-Mart towns. Home furnishing sales in non Wal-Mart towns declined. The study has also unearthed that stores carrying similar lines as merchandise stocked in Wal-Mart, probably loses sales. Apparel sales in other stores fell by around 28% in the year in which Wal-Mart opened in a town. Retailers in Smaller towns with less than 5000 population lost most when a Wal-Mart opened. Vermont state officials had tried to keep Wal-Mart away to protect its small traders, but found that the entire sales shifted to New Hampshire and New York where Wal-Mart opened. The author concludes that loss of retail trade for small stores has accelerated in the past two decades. The author then proceeds to suggest a few ways in which retailers can coexist with Wal-Mart. They include stocking merchandise lines, which Wal-Mart does not handle, handle complementary merchandise, go for upscale merchandise etc. A b etter customer profiling, extended working hours, no hassle return policy etc, special order capability which large discount supermarkets don't possess etc are essential. Summary of Article # 2 Author: Hallsworth, Alan and Evers, David Topic: The steady advance of Wal Mart across Europe and changing government attitudes towards planning and competition. Source: Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 2002, Volume 20, pages 297-309 Date 2002 The authors focus on retail internationalization and the ability of EU states and their regulatory mechanism to handle the same. Since 1994, the Wal-Mart format has been creating a systemic change in the retail environments of a number of countries. Planning regulations in many countries are at odds with other policy developers who look forward to encourage competition in order to develop national competitiveness. Netherlands had a tight policy against big box development, but consequent policy decisions could make the market a

Reporting Practices and Ethics Essay Example for Free

Reporting Practices and Ethics Essay Introduction Reporting practices and ethical standards are the most important building blocks that are needed to build a successful health care organization or any business. These reporting practices and ethical standards prove to be the upmost important practices in any health care organization. When reviewing all the variables and factors, one considers the principals listed in the generally accepted accounting principles. There are several factors to consider and inforce these principles in an organization. To successfully implement generally accepted accounting principles and execute corporate compliance, an organization should consider in order for building a successful organization; ethics, fraud and abuse are all key components for maintaining a successful health care or business organization. A successful organization cannot be successful unless they integrate and implement the four elements for financial management. In order to implement and execute the four element of financial management for a successful organization, the four elements should be implemented and carried out in full on a daily basis for every procedure and operation within the organization. Controlling, planning, organizing, and decision making are the four components every business and/or health care organization should adopt. The four elements are the keys to every good business ethics and standards to maintain a successful organization. Four Elements of Financial Management The planning stage of the four elements of financial management proves this stage, is vital to set goals for a healthcare organization end to end with its execution of this stage and the other four elements. The next element of financial management is the controlling stage and in this important stage the organization must set goals for their organization and that each goal is executed and carried out. A perfect example of how an administrator /director/ manager in a healthcare organization can control their  organization is to conduct audits of the department they oversee. Decision making is defined as the overall performance of the other three elements and determination on wither or not the overall performance of the other elements. The success of this can be measured Decision making in conjunction with the other elements and the overall performance and success of other 3 elements ultimately determines decision making elements. Examples, if the organization exceeds the funds budgeted and find they are over budget, the decision making element comes in to play to review these items over budget and make an action plan to correct and/or prevent in the future. The four components are a vitally in financial management there are also other important principals and standards. The Generally accepted accounting principles and general financial ethical standards along with corporate compliance, ethics, or fraud and abuse are equally important separately and combined. The four functions of management help the facilities function properly and give the management the opportunity to resolve any issue or obstacle that may present as well as the opportunity to growth and make them better to perform and utilized the resources around them. Management is responsible for beginning the process for procedure or task at hand and sustaining the actual method of internal control that is set by the organization. It is important that management/ administrator/ director to oversee and maintain the budget control. The manager/admin/director overseeing the budget should be knowledgeable of how to control the budget and in order to maintain budget control, they should regulate to increase productivity and be familiar with assets, financial reporting and account summary. Every cooptation or health care organization is necessitate to meet the satisfactory operational needs, consequently cash management function helps any organization begin to create a set of policies and procedures to ensure that federal funds are not withdraw unreasonable from the organization and payments are made properly to the programs (Ethics and Compliances May 1994). According to Ethical Behavior by Companies Benefit Society and Business (November 13, 2010), when applying ethical business practices, says that business should ensure that the production of its services should be environmentally ecological and every human involve in the production should not be dangerous or harmful for them. Ethical practices involve the strong financial reporting as well as consideration  for the social and environmental impact of the business. Audit reports help the organizations know the financial condition of the organization for Health Care or any other business as well as the result of the organization’s day to day internal operations. Audits are helpful when following the practices of financial reporting practices of the organization can serve as a checks and balances and a great tool for capturing financial data, if management checks the financial audit reports often. Financial reports explain in detail how the organization is doing and prevents negative numbers on the company because it records any procedure and activity that happens in the organization (Ethics and Compliances. May 1994). According to American College of Physicians (Snyder. 2012), the environment for the delivery of health care continues to change. Sites of care are shifting, with more care provided in ambulatory settings while the intensity of inpatient care increases. Generally Accepted Accounting Principals â€Å"The phrase â€Å"generally accepted accounting principles† is a technical account term that encompasses the conventions, rules, and procedures necessary to define accepted accounting practice at a particular time. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are concerned with the measurement of economic activity, the timed when such measurements are to be made and recorded, the disclosures surrounding this activity, and the preparation and presentation of summarized economic information in the form of financial statements (Bragg, 2012). Generally accepted accounting principles also known as GAAP to understand the definition better, GAAP are guidelines that one should follow when trying to establish proper financial documents and reports. With these guidelines to follow, it was easier to maintain the financial reporting’s for all fields, including healthcare. The generally accepted accounting principles were held in the highest regard. The guidelines of the GAAP have had a high authority when it came to determining financial practices in healthcare. The GAAP influence has dwindled if not stopped. It was stated that it was not required for hospitals, nursing homes or any kind of healthcare facility to adhere to the GAAP (Taebel 1995). It has been documented that the guidelines of the GAAP has caused facilities to lose money, even though they knew what was best about recognizing costs. It has  been suggested that is not required to make decisions based off of the general accepted accounting principles. Capital costs are reimbursed according to a prospective payment system; providers are being paid a predetermined amount regardless of GAAP issues (Taebel, 1995). Conclusion There are countless of different ways that we can touch bases on to understand the importance of a cohesive financial department. It is essential to its success to be ethically compliant and to follow through with policy and procedure. It is up to the financial managers to execute and enforce proper guidelines. In conclusion, there are four elements of the financial structure that is the basis for a financial departments success which are planning, controlling, organizing and decision making. With this information we were able to understand and summarize more in depth the importance of generally accepted accounting principles and general financial ethical standards. Finally, we were able to view examples in those respecting terms and gain understanding from them. By compiling all of these elements together can guarantee a solid financial department in any healthcare facility. References American College of Physicians (2010) Ethics in Practice: Managed Care and the Changing Health Care Environment. Retrieved 11/13/2010 from http://www.annals.org/content/ Bragg, Steven M. Wiley GAAP 2012: Interpretation and Application of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (10th Edition). Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley Sons, 2011. ProQuest ebrary. Web1 May 2015. Ethics and Compliances Retrieved 11/13/2010 from http://www.miamivalleyhospital.org/mvhdefault.aspx?id=12746 (May 1994) Snyder L, for the American College of Physicians Ethics, Professionalism, and Human Rights Committee. American College of Physicians Ethics Manual: Sixth Edition. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:73-104. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-156-1-201201031-00001 Taebel, S.W. (1995, October). Supreme Court ruling reduces GAAPs authority in Medicare cases. Healthcare Financial Management, 49(10)

Emerging Threat of Invasive Fungal Infections

Emerging Threat of Invasive Fungal Infections Introduction Emerging threat of Invasive Fungal Infections Invasive fungal infection continues to be a major problem associated with high morbidity and mortality mainly to immunocompromised patients as well as to immunocomptent patients but to a much lower extent. (1) Invasive fungal infection and fungemia are caused by a variety of fungal pathogens. The most commonly isolated yeasts are Candida species (spp.) and Cryptococcus spp. Aspergillus species remains the most common mould however, Fusarium spp., Scedosporium spp., Penicillium spp. and Zygomycetes are increasingly isolated.(2) Patients mostly become colonized during hospitalization however, very few patients who become colonized develop sever infection. Nosocomial fungal infections can represent up to 15% of all nosocomial infections.(3) The spectrum of opportunistic invasive fungal infections has increased substantially owing to the rapidly growing population of immunocompromised patients.(4) Due to lack of specificity of symptoms diagnosis of fungal infections can be challenging.(3 ) Candida infections are mostly prevalent in critically ill patients in intensive care units (ICUs) and very low birth weight infants. Candidaemia is highly fatal with a reported mortality in the range from 36% to 63%.(5) In the recent years, mortality rates in ICU patients have decreased substantially probably due to earlier initiation of antifungal therapy.(6) Conversely, aspergillosis is the most common fungal infection in immunocompromised most specifically in haematological malignancy and haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) patients. Incidence of aspergillosis has increased considerably but mortality has decreased owing to better diagnosis and treatment.(7) Treatment of Invasive Fungal Infections Treatment and prophylaxis of invasive fungal infections involves systemic antifungal therapy. Historically amphotericin B and Flucytosine have been the only available antifungals; these were followed by the development of the older triazole antifungals; fluconazole and itraconazole in the late 1980s. More recent advances have led to the release of amphotericin lipid formulas, newer broad spectrum triazoles (voriconazole, posaconazole) and the newest class of echinocandins.(8) Amphotericin B either as a deoxycholate or in lipid formulations has been the backbone of antifungal therapy for many years. The triazole antifungals have also emerged as front-line treatment and prophylaxis for many systemic fungal infections. Triazole antifungals used systemically include fluconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole and voriconazole. Fluconazole has a major role in prophylaxis and treatment of both invasive and superficial fungal infection. Voriconazole is the drug of choice in invasive aspergillosis of the lung. Posaconazole is used as a salvage therapy for invasive aspergillosis as well as a prophylaxis in HSCT and neutropenic patients.(9) Itraconazole is active against most fungi except for Zygomycetes.(10) Terbinafine which is widely used in skin infections is also effective against systemic candidiasis including vulvovaginal candidiasis although less effective than fluconazole and itraconazole.(11,12) Flucytosine is used in combination with amphotericin B for treat ment of severe systemic mycoses and has also in combination with other antifungals for treatment of colorectal carcinoma.(13) Echinocandins Introduced Despite the advantages in medical practice and introduction of newer agents, mortality due to fungal infections remained high with mortality due to Aspergillus approaching 100% in HSCT patients.(14,15) There has also been a change in epidemiology of fungal infections with non-albicans species reaching up to 50% with no significant change in mortality in spite of these newer agents in two studies conducted 15 years apart.(16,17) Echinocandins is a newer class of systemic antifungals introduced after almost 15 years of no new agents. They work by inhibiting ÃŽ ²-D glucan in fungal cell wall. Echinocandins have favourable kinetics which allows their once daily dosing. (18) The first echinocandin product to be licensed is caspofungin (FDA approved in 2001), that was followed by micafungin (FDA approved in 2005), and anidulafungin (FDA approved in 2006). (19)The discovery of the echinocandin antifungals has provided a new alternative for patients with equal if not higher efficacy relative to older agents and apparently lower toxicity.(20,21) Echinocandins are extensively used in the treatment of invasive fungal infections mainly invasive candidiasis in neutropenic and critically ill patients.(22)They are also approved as a salvage treatment for invasive aspergillosis.(23) The major advantage of the echinocandins members is their higher efficacy against many candida species including C. glabrata and C. krusei res istant to fluconazole added to their lower toxicity rates compared to older antifungals.(20,21,24) The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) recommends echinocandins as first line treatment of Candidaemia while caspofungin is offered as an alternative to voriconazole for treatment of invasive aspergillosis.(22,23) Echinocandins showed equal efficacy to triazole antifungals and even superior efficacy in subgroup analysis since it demonstrates superior efficacy for prophylaxis in patients with hematologic malignancies and undergoing HSCT.(25) Echinocandins Safety Treatment of fungal infections is challenging and riddled with adverse events. (26,27) Echinocandins showed no difference in drug related adverse events and all-cause mortality as compared to triazole antifungals where both groups have shown to be generally well tolerated, nevertheless, echinocandins has significantly decreased adverse event related mortality compared to triazole antifungals.(25) Echinocandins have revealed hepatic toxicity in clinical trials yet the incidence is considered low.(28) The most commonly reported toxicities associated with echinocandins in clinical trials are rash, phlebitis, and nausea. The renal profile of this class appears to be superior to that of older agents.(29,30) Serious adverse events reported with echinocandins in the context of clinical trials are very few with atrial fibrillation and seizures in two cases treated with anidulafungin and disseminated intravascular coagulation in another one treated with micafungin.(31,32) Unfortunately, till now there is insufficient data on the frequency of hepatic and renal toxicities in normal clinical settings although they have already been reported in context of clinical trials. Moreover, as these agents became more widely used outside clinical trials, new adverse reactions are surfacing. Anidulafungin has been reported to be associated with alopecia in a female patient after several months of treatment.(33) Anidulafungin has also been associated with life-threatening haemodynamic stability in another patient during administration.(34) Three cases has shown a considerable drop in their cardiac index or a worsening of the mean arterial pressure, one following caspofungin administration and the other two post anidulafungin administration.(35) Echinocandins has also been associated with a decrease in cardiac contractility in few case reports and in vitro studies which warrant further investigations.(36,37) Further studies seem to be mandatory to investigate this po tential risk. Limitations on Detecting Risk Pre-marketing studies are incapable of detecting rare events. In addition due to their short duration they are also unable to detect delayed toxicities. It’s worth noting that to detect doubling of a 0.1% event with 80% power; more than 50,000 subjects need to be studied. This leads to drugs being authorized without serious rare events are adequately studied. One cannot also be sure that the safety profile demonstrated in the pre-marketing clinical trials with limited number of subjects remains unchanged when used by millions of patients in normal settings. This difference in safety profile demonstrated is not only attributed to difference in number of users but may also be due to choosing of healthier subjects to participate in clinical trials, providing better care to clinical trials participants in addition to shorter duration of exposure in clinical trials as compared to normal settings. This difference in safety profile may as well be attributed to the fact that participa nts in clinical trials are rarely representative to the general patient population. (38,39) Post Marketing Risk Detection Pharmacovigilance is defined as the continuous process of detecting, evaluating, communicating and improving safety of medicines under normal conditions.(40) Post marketing data on adverse events include spontaneous case reports, medical record databases, and data collected in prospective postmarketing studies.(41) Spontaneous reports are unsolicited reports of clinical observations originating outside of a formal clinical trial and that are submitted to regulatory agencies or drug manufacturers.(42) The report is considered important if it involves an ADR that is new, rare, serious or occurring at a higher frequency than expected.(43) Spontaneous reporting systems have a potential for detecting or ‘signalling’ new ADRS that have not been previously recognized in clinical trials.(38) The most crucial factor that determines the value of spontaneous reports is the quality of submitted reports and whether it has a complete description of the ADR, patient demographics, baseline characteristics other confounding factors or medication and temporal relation.(42) Signal detection using large postmarketing ADRs databases is the first step in detecting unknown and unexpected associations between drug exposure and adverse events which has to be followed by qualitative case-by-case analysis to identify signals that may be of value or warrant further investigation.(44,45) Safety evaluators usually look at common trends or patterns or and potential causal relations. (42) Advantages and Limitations of Spontaneous Reporting In all countries, the nation pharmacovigilance system relies on spontaneous reporting by healthcare practitioners, patients and manufacturers to the national coordinating center.(46) Spontaneous reporting is the only source of pharmacovigilance that provides the highest volume of data at the lowest cost.(47) The most important function of spontaneous reporting is early detection of signals which helps in hypothesis formulation that may lead to initiation of confirmatory investigations or regulatory actions that may end up with warnings, label changes or product withdrawal.(48,49) Large postmarketing databases are the most important source for mining of drug safety data, however, analysing data from these databases is very challenging owing to the limitations of these unsolicited reporting systems.(50) One of the most important limitations of spontaneous reporting is the quality of data since cases are mostly poorly documented with no follow up data which necessitates contacting the reporter for more data.(42) Another limitation is under-reporting whose extent is very hard to estimate and which depends on many factors including the severity of the reported ADR among many other factors.(51,52) Reporting rate also undergoes fluctuation along the drug life cycle with higher rates noticed when the drug is newly introduced to the market (weber effect). Higher reporting rates are also noticed for serious medical events or after negative publicity. (53) It’s estimated that FDA receives only 1% of ADRs in one study and 8% in another of all occurring ADRs which affects is reflected on the inability of spontaneous reporting system to estimate incidence of a specified ADR. (54,55) Role of Data mining in Pharmacovigilance The role of data mining in the field of pharmacovigilance is evolving. At the outset, it’s worth noting that data mining methods involve identifying the observed relation between a drug and a certain ADR. These relation identification methods are based totally on the frequency with which the drug and event are reported. The relations identified using these data mining techniques cannot be used to prove or negate a causal relation.(50) Data mining methods can elucidate complex drug issues such as concomitant medications or conditions that may not be investigated using traditional methods. However, this is usually confronted by the non-systematic attainment of background rates of adverse events and drug exposure data which hinder estimation of risk based on spontaneous reporting databases.(56,57) In the context of data mining, the term ‘signal’ is used to refer to a quantitative association between a drug and an event which exceeds a certain threshold set by the investigator that warrant further evaluation. The ‘signal score’ is the number reflecting the strength of the quantitative association which reflects how much the observed frequency differs from that expected.(50,56,58) The application of computational and statistical methods to large drug safety databases for identifying drug-event pairs disproportionately reported at higher frequency than expected by a statistical independence model is referred to as ‘Safety data mining’ and ‘disproportionality analysis’. Many data-mining methods are applied to pharmacovigilance; the ones that are most commonly reported in the literature are the proportional reporting ratio (PRR) and the reporting odds ratio (ROR) in addition to the Bayesian and empirical Bayesian methods.(59–62) Signal Detection Methods Disproportionality analysis is the main concept behind computerized pharmacovigilance methods. Disproportionality analysis is dependent on the construction of a 22 contingency table as shown in table (1). (63) Disproportionality methods differ in how they are calculated and how they account for low counts. They are generally classified into Frequentist and Bayesian approaches. Drug of interestOther drugs Event of interestab Other event cd Table 1: Statistical significance in spontaneous reporting is calculated using the frequencies in the table above Frequentist approaches Frequentist approach usually accompanied by hypothesis testing of independence using chi-square or Fisher’s exact test.(64) Proportional reporting rate (PRR) or Case/Non-case design PRR can be considered as an approximation of conditional probability and is calculated using the following equation: PRR= = a/(a+c) à · b/(b+d). Where a/(a+c) can be perceived as the probability of developing the event of interest given that the drug of interest is taken and an event in turn, b/(b+d) can also be perceived as the probability of developing the event of interest given that another drug is received given that any other drug is taken and an event occurred.(63) PRR is a valuable aid to signal generation which is easy to calculate and interpret with various refinements made possible.(59) Reporting Odds Ratio ROR is a ratio of two ratios and is calculated according to the equation: ROR= a/bà ·c/d where a/b is the ratio of the patients who had the event of interest a divided by the number of patients who had the event while taking other medications. This ratio in turn is divided by c/d which is calculated by dividing all patients who had the drug of interest but did not have the event of interest by all other patients who did not have the event of interest given that they took any other drugs. (63) ROR is not affected by general under reporting for a specific drug or as specific event.(65) It has been proposed that ROR may be less biased than other disproportionality methods being considered as the case-control studies analysis.(66) Nevertheless, others believe that in practice there is no difference in performance between ROR and PRR.(60,67) Bayesian approaches Bayesian approaches tries to account for uncertainty in disproportionality measure calculated from small samples by shrinking the disproportionality measure towards baseline case of no association. This shrinking is a reduction of spurious associations when there are not enough data to support it and is proportional to the variability in the disproportionality statistics.(64) The Bayesian approaches include Multi-item Gamma Poisson Shrinker (MGPS) which is currently used by the FDA.(68,69) MGPS is based on an empirical Bayes framework and its computed measure is called empirical Bayes geometric mean (EBGM) which is the Bayesian version of the Relative Reporting Ratio (RRR). RRR is the ratio of the incidence of the observed incidence rate of a drug-event pair to its expected rate under the assumption that the drug and event are independent.(70) Another Bayesian approach adopted by the WHO is called Bayesian Confidence Propagation Neural Network (BCPNN), which estimates a Bayesian version of the Information Component (IC). A positive IC indicates that based on all reports in the database the drug-event pair is reported more often than expected. (61) Postmarketing Safety Databases for Signal Detection Databases utilized in drug safety data mining are postmarketing databases maintained by manufactures, regulators and different consortia. These databases are different in their reporting guidelines, coding dictionaries and rules for data entry. These databases vary in size and may reach millions of reports. The analysis of these databases may yield different results and so a single database available to all stakeholders is needed. Ideally this database will not have duplicate reports or missing data and is consistently coded for drug and event name. A number of databases are commonly available for signal detection activities, however; they differ in accessibility. These include the database of the WHO International Drug Monitoring Programme and the FDA’s public release safety database (AERS).(50) WHO Safety Database The WHO safety database is a large database receiving AEs from the national collaborating centers participating in the WHO Drug monitoring program.(71) It has the advantage of having the drug names coded according to the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification and ADRS are coded using the WHO Adverse Reaction Terminology. However, data is accessible by subscription only.(68) European Medicines Agency EudraVigilance database The EMEA pharmacovigilance system is called the EudraVigilance. It has 2 modules one for clinical trials and another for post marketing surveillance. It has analytical capabilities and performs signal detection in terms of PRR and ROR. It has restricted access even to manufacturers who can only see reports that they have submitted to the EMEA.(72) US FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (AERS) AERS is the FDA’s postmarketing safety database. AERS database is intended to support the FDAs post-marketing safety surveillance program for drugs. It relies on unsolicited reports submitted by healthcare professionals and patients on adverse events and medication error reports as well as required reports by manufacturers and so represents a useful resource for investigating drug safety.(73) The public-release version of AERS is available beginning with January 2004 as quarterly data directly downloadable from the FDA website. The new FDA FAERS was launched in the 10th September, 2012, and replaced the Adverse Event Reporting System (also known as Legacy AERS).(74) The main aim of the current study is to: Map the safety profile of echinocandins antifungals.as compared to other drugs. Compare the safety profile of echinocandins to that of other systemic antifungals. Assess the effect of changing the reference group on the top signals identified. To achieve these aims data mining methods and disproportionality analysis will be employed to the FDA AERS to achieve these aims. This study will therefore add to the knowledge on the safety profile of this newer class of antifungals.

The Impact of War In Britain :: essays research papers

The Impact of War at Home When war was declared, there were no celebrations. Instead the government took immediate action, and emergency powers, everyone was issued with gas masks in 1938. The bombing power of the Germans was something that was feared greatly by those that remembered the first war, and by the government, who knew that German bombers were now very advanced. Between the 1st and 3rd of September over one million people were evacuated, as the government were particularly worried about immediate bombing of built up and industrial areas. The majority of evacuees were children from poorer homes in larger cities. Their lives changed dramatically, they had to move to a whole new world in the country. However, as from September 1939 – May 1940 was the Phoney War, meaning no bombs were dropped, almost half the evacuees had been returned by the beginning of The Blitz, many of which had to be evacuated again. Mothers could accompany children under 5, but any child older then that was housed by foster parents, who received an allowance from the government. Children who were evacuated had good and bad experiences, depending on what their foster homes were like. Preparations had been made for the expected bombing, bombers were more accurate now then in the first war and the government prepared people by building bomb shelters and setting up volunteer organisations to deal with the air raid threat. There were 1.5 million Anderson shelters given away by September 1939, which were put in gardens and covered up. There were also over one million Morrison Shelters issued in 1941, a Morrison Shelter was a steel mesh box to contain a mattress, and could be kept in the living room. Air raid wardens and Auxiliary fire services were trained in Air Raid Precautions, the blackout was imposed, as were Anti Aircraft guns and Barrage Balloons to force bombers higher, sirens were put up to warn of attack and the WVS was set up to help women with injuries and comfort. Britain managed to survive The Blitz. Government films and statements only showed the bravery and fighting spirit of the civilians and reports were censored if they gave numbers or photographs of the dead. The major target areas for the Germans during The Blitz were London, Birmingham, Bristol, Merseyside, Southampton, Sheffield, Cardiff, Hull, Plymouth, Belfast, Clydeside and Coventry. In the summer of 1941 German bombers were needed for the invasion of the USSR and The Blitz came to an end, though air raids continued and by Summer 1941 more civilians had been killed in the War then British soldiers.

Dried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants

Dried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants Abstract Mulching in agricultural provides a safe yet equally profitable method of enriching and fertilizing the soil planted with crops. Most often-used mulches are of organic composition, such as dry leaves and barks. Unlike  synthetic fertilizers  and herbicides, these organic mulches pose no or little damage to the soil and crops. In this study, the effectiveness of  dried papaya  leaves as organic mulch for tomato was tested.Papaya mulches in different thickness were applied on plots planted with tomato in three replications. After the determined period of mulch  application, the researchers  application, the researchers measured the height increases of tomato plants and the weed density in the plots. It was concluded that papaya mulch significantly promoted height increase of tomato plants and inhibited the growth of weeds. The best mulch was 3 inches in thickness. IntroductionUsually defined as the use of organ ic and biodegradable materials to give plants the nutrients they need, organic farming proved to be the safest and most effective method of increasing and sustaining yield. Various methods fall under organic farming, such as composting, green manuring, legume inoculating, and utilizing animal manure as fertilizers. Mulching is a simple process that increases soil fertility and regulating several factors affecting overall plant growth. In this method, a layer of material-the mulch-is placed on soil surface around the plant.The mulch is used to retard the growth of weeds, protect roots and stems from sudden or extreme temperature changes, reduce soil erosion by wind and water, retard runoff of rainfall, prevent soil pudding by breaking the impact of raindrops, and keep flowers and fruits from being spattered with mud during rainstorms. Hypotheses 1. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)  was the most  effective mulch for growing eggplant in terms of:a. Controlling  weedsb. Insect  Countc. Number  of  damaged  and  undamaged fruits. Weight of  damaged and undamaged fruits 2. There was  a significant  difference among the treatments  in terms  of:a.Controlling  weedsb. Insect  Countc. Number  of  damaged  and  undamaged fruits. Weight  of  damaged and  undamaged  fruits 3. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)  was the most  effective mulch for growing eggplant in terms of producing undamaged fruits. Significance of the study Nowadays, various processes and methods have been considered inorganic farming such as composting and utilizing animal manure. These methods have been proven in giving excellent growth and development of plants. One of the techniques in organic farming that have been used today is mulching, either dry or wet season.It is very effective in conserving soil moisture for  the plants, prevents growth of weeds, can lessen  the use of chemicals like insecticides and pesticides, keep flowers and fruits fr om being spattered with mud during rainy days, keeps the soil cooler during summer and keeps warmer in rainy season . Numerous recyclable materials are found in our surroundings such as barks, leaves, rice straw, sacks and plastics that can be used for some agricultural purposes like mulching and these materials can be used as an organic fertilizer for plants.Furthermore, rice straw, sacks and plastics has been proven as mulch for plants. If these materials were used properly, it would be a big benefit to the humanity particularly to the farmers . It is for this reason that, the researchers thought of exploring the comparison between rice straw, black plastic and white old sack as mulch for eggplant in terms of number of weeds ,number of insects, number and weight of fruits. Through this, the farmers will have comprehensive information about the differences between the different mulching materials.In addition,  this  study  can  help  the  farmers  to  lessen  the use  of  chemical  products  and  will contribute to the protection of the environment for not using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides which could harm our nature but rather the mulching materials that have a minimal cost and environment friendly. These will also help the  country’s aim in harnessing the full potential of  its natural resources. Definition of terms Papaya leaves are commonly used as organic mulch for tomato plants as they provide all the nutrients required by the plant, without the need to cover the tomato plant in pesticides.Tomatoes grow right through from the spring until autumn, and turn in a number of fruit harvests during this period of time. They are incredibly hungry and thirsty plants and require mulch all summer long for their protection. * Organic mulch for tomatoes Organic mulch can be made from any kind of plant or animal matter and papaya leaves are perfect for this. Other things that can be used include bark, pine chips, grass clippings, spent leaves and regular compost. Papaya leaves are ideal and you can prepare them in the same way you'd prepare any kind of mulch for your plants. * How to apply the mulchTomatoes will need between 2 and 3 inches of organic mulch surrounding them at all times. This is to ensure that nutrients remain in the soil, and that it remains warm and moist. It is also to discourage the growth of weeds and protect the plant from soil-born diseases and pests. Anyone going about this should lay down a number of layers of papaya leaves over the soil around the tomatoes with a view to achieve the aforementioned depth. Maintaining the plant and mulch Over time, the organic matter (the papaya leaves) will break down and return to the soil, putting nutrients back into the soil for the plant as well.This means that your plant obtains organic nutrients as well as organic protection from the elements. Any gardener will need to monitor the layer of mulch and ensure that it is replenished suff iciently throughout the summer. Review of Related Literature Mulch is a layer of material, preferably organic material that is placed on the soil surface to conserve moisture, hold down weeds,  and ultimately improve soil structure and fertility. There is more to mulch than meets the eye. Be it a fluffy blanket of hay, a rich brown carpet of cocoa bean hells, or a mantle of sawdust that â€Å"topping† for the vegetable patch and flower bed serves as much more than frosting on the garden cake. Mulch Acts. It performs in several wondrous ways. It fills a role as protector of the topsoil conserver of moisture, guardian against weather extremes and comfortable, bruise-saving cushioned under repining procedure. It prevents weed growth while enriching the soil and all but eliminates a lot of those time-consuming, back aching  jobs like plowing and cultivating always. Materials and MethodologyDried papaya  leaves make an ideal organic  mulch, providing warmth and nutrition t o the  tomato plant  below, while also helping to prevent the growth of unwanted weeds and proliferation of diseases, as well as protecting them from soil borne pests. All that is needed for papaya  mulch  is the  dried leaves  of the papaya tree. Unfortunately, papaya grows in a  tropical climate  so many not be so easy to come by, although the Internet is an incredible resource for obtaining the unobtainable. If you are geographically fortunate to have a tree growing near you then simply harvest it of its leaves and then dry them out.There are three ways this can be done: 1. Pat dry any moisture on the papaya leaves, hang them up and leave to air in a dark and dry place. This could take several weeks depending on the climate. 2. Place the leaves on a baking tray and heat at around 225 degrees Fahrenheit, monitoring them closely until the moisture has evaporated but before they become brittle or burn. 3. Alternatively zap them in  the microwave  on a low heat un til dry. Once dry  apply  the  mulch  at roughly around two to three inches thick on  the soil  bed and around the base of the tomato plants. For best results, he  mulch  should be replenished during the summer once the previous  mulch  has decomposed. The effect of papaya leaves as  mulch  is that they bring the soil's pH level to a more neutral range which is the preference of most plants. To make mulch for  tomato plants  from  dried papaya  leaves, you'll need a  mulch lawn mower  and a wood chipping device. By beginning your mulch pile in the autumn months, and continually adding  wood chips  and mulched,  dried papaya  leaves, you'll soon be ready to add  the pile  to the earth  around your  tomato plants  (in late spring or early summer).The best mulches, such as mulch created with  dried papaya  leaves, are used to add height and width to  tomato plants. The nutrients and  chemical composition  of  dried papay a  leaves makes these leaves very effective fertilizers for  tomato plants. Tomato Growing Tips †¢ When planting your tomatoes from seeds, be sure you space the seeds out and give each seed plenty of room to sprout roots and grow. The best tomato growers give each seedling a few inches of space before planting the next seed. If you don't have much soil to grow your tomatoes in, consider planting less seeds, but taking excellent care of the seedlings that are already in place.To get the best results, seeds need plenty of room to  branch  out and lay down roots. †¢ Trimming your plants with garden shears can be a great way to ensure that you get bigger, juicier tomatoes during the growing season. In general, removing leaves from the bottom portion of the  tomato plant  is the best gardening  strategy. It's fine to leave the top leaves as they are when tending to your  tomato plants. Mulching is a clever way to amp up the size and scale of your  tomato plant s, and dried papaya  leaves are terrific natural â€Å"food† for  tomato plants.If you're examining ways to improve your yield of  tomato plants  this year, be sure to think about creating a mulch pile filled with shredded papaya leaves and  wood chips. Discussion of results Based on the data the researchers have gathered, we can see how the set-ups with dried papaya leaf mulch had a higher growth rate than those without. After the allotted time for the experiment, all the plants from the mulch set-up grew at least 7cm higher with the highest growing 8cm higher. On the other hand the set-ups without mulch only grew at least 5cm taller with the highest growing only 7cmtaller.Set-ups Set-up  Parts| Before  Mulch  Exposure| After  One  Week| Tomato plant| Light  Green  leafs  | Dark  Green  leafs,  taller| Dried Papaya Leaf Mulch| Damp| Dry,  bad  smell| Summary All plants are still healthy  because  of the color of  their leaves. By wee k 3, the average height of the A plants is 4. 462 cm (2. 44 cm more than initial average height). The average height of the B plants by week 3 is 5. 990 cm (3. 804 cm more than initial average height). Conclusion The researchers therefore conclude that using dried papaya leaves as mulch for tomato plant helps tremendously in its growth rate.Dried papaya leaves have nutrients that help nurture the soil so that it will be more favorable conditions for the growth of tomato plants. Also the researchers found out that dried papaya leaves are basic and therefore help make the soil in which tomato plants grow more neutral. This is important because studies have shown that neutral pH levels of soil are the most favorable conditions for a tomato plant to grow in. Recommendations 1. All plants could be at  the same initial height at the  start of the experiment to  have more consistent data and to see the growth with more precision. . Based on our further research, testing dried papaya leafs as insect repellants would be a more effective topic than testing its characteristic as alkaline mulch. 3. There could have been a set-up in which a commercial fertilizer was used to be able to compare the mulch's attributes to fertilizers used by farmers all around the country. 4. The set-ups could have been observed for at least two more weeks to check if  the growth rate for both set-ups would have remained constant or changed over  time. Dried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants Dried Papaya Leaves as Organic Mulch for Tomato Plants Abstract Mulching in agricultural provides a safe yet equally profitable method of enriching and fertilizing the soil planted with crops. Most often-used mulches are of organic composition, such as dry leaves and barks. Unlike  synthetic fertilizers  and herbicides, these organic mulches pose no or little damage to the soil and crops. In this study, the effectiveness of  dried papaya  leaves as organic mulch for tomato was tested.Papaya mulches in different thickness were applied on plots planted with tomato in three replications. After the determined period of mulch  application, the researchers  application, the researchers measured the height increases of tomato plants and the weed density in the plots. It was concluded that papaya mulch significantly promoted height increase of tomato plants and inhibited the growth of weeds. The best mulch was 3 inches in thickness. IntroductionUsually defined as the use of organ ic and biodegradable materials to give plants the nutrients they need, organic farming proved to be the safest and most effective method of increasing and sustaining yield. Various methods fall under organic farming, such as composting, green manuring, legume inoculating, and utilizing animal manure as fertilizers. Mulching is a simple process that increases soil fertility and regulating several factors affecting overall plant growth. In this method, a layer of material-the mulch-is placed on soil surface around the plant.The mulch is used to retard the growth of weeds, protect roots and stems from sudden or extreme temperature changes, reduce soil erosion by wind and water, retard runoff of rainfall, prevent soil pudding by breaking the impact of raindrops, and keep flowers and fruits from being spattered with mud during rainstorms. Hypotheses 1. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)  was the most  effective mulch for growing eggplant in terms of:a. Controlling  weedsb. Insect  Countc. Number  of  damaged  and  undamaged fruits. Weight of  damaged and undamaged fruits 2. There was  a significant  difference among the treatments  in terms  of:a.Controlling  weedsb. Insect  Countc. Number  of  damaged  and  undamaged fruits. Weight  of  damaged and  undamaged  fruits 3. Treatment 2 (black plastic mulch)  was the most  effective mulch for growing eggplant in terms of producing undamaged fruits. Significance of the study Nowadays, various processes and methods have been considered inorganic farming such as composting and utilizing animal manure. These methods have been proven in giving excellent growth and development of plants. One of the techniques in organic farming that have been used today is mulching, either dry or wet season.It is very effective in conserving soil moisture for  the plants, prevents growth of weeds, can lessen  the use of chemicals like insecticides and pesticides, keep flowers and fruits fr om being spattered with mud during rainy days, keeps the soil cooler during summer and keeps warmer in rainy season . Numerous recyclable materials are found in our surroundings such as barks, leaves, rice straw, sacks and plastics that can be used for some agricultural purposes like mulching and these materials can be used as an organic fertilizer for plants.Furthermore, rice straw, sacks and plastics has been proven as mulch for plants. If these materials were used properly, it would be a big benefit to the humanity particularly to the farmers . It is for this reason that, the researchers thought of exploring the comparison between rice straw, black plastic and white old sack as mulch for eggplant in terms of number of weeds ,number of insects, number and weight of fruits. Through this, the farmers will have comprehensive information about the differences between the different mulching materials.In addition,  this  study  can  help  the  farmers  to  lessen  the use  of  chemical  products  and  will contribute to the protection of the environment for not using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides which could harm our nature but rather the mulching materials that have a minimal cost and environment friendly. These will also help the  country’s aim in harnessing the full potential of  its natural resources. Definition of terms Papaya leaves are commonly used as organic mulch for tomato plants as they provide all the nutrients required by the plant, without the need to cover the tomato plant in pesticides.Tomatoes grow right through from the spring until autumn, and turn in a number of fruit harvests during this period of time. They are incredibly hungry and thirsty plants and require mulch all summer long for their protection. * Organic mulch for tomatoes Organic mulch can be made from any kind of plant or animal matter and papaya leaves are perfect for this. Other things that can be used include bark, pine chips, grass clippings, spent leaves and regular compost. Papaya leaves are ideal and you can prepare them in the same way you'd prepare any kind of mulch for your plants. * How to apply the mulchTomatoes will need between 2 and 3 inches of organic mulch surrounding them at all times. This is to ensure that nutrients remain in the soil, and that it remains warm and moist. It is also to discourage the growth of weeds and protect the plant from soil-born diseases and pests. Anyone going about this should lay down a number of layers of papaya leaves over the soil around the tomatoes with a view to achieve the aforementioned depth. Maintaining the plant and mulch Over time, the organic matter (the papaya leaves) will break down and return to the soil, putting nutrients back into the soil for the plant as well.This means that your plant obtains organic nutrients as well as organic protection from the elements. Any gardener will need to monitor the layer of mulch and ensure that it is replenished suff iciently throughout the summer. Review of Related Literature Mulch is a layer of material, preferably organic material that is placed on the soil surface to conserve moisture, hold down weeds,  and ultimately improve soil structure and fertility. There is more to mulch than meets the eye. Be it a fluffy blanket of hay, a rich brown carpet of cocoa bean hells, or a mantle of sawdust that â€Å"topping† for the vegetable patch and flower bed serves as much more than frosting on the garden cake. Mulch Acts. It performs in several wondrous ways. It fills a role as protector of the topsoil conserver of moisture, guardian against weather extremes and comfortable, bruise-saving cushioned under repining procedure. It prevents weed growth while enriching the soil and all but eliminates a lot of those time-consuming, back aching  jobs like plowing and cultivating always. Materials and MethodologyDried papaya  leaves make an ideal organic  mulch, providing warmth and nutrition t o the  tomato plant  below, while also helping to prevent the growth of unwanted weeds and proliferation of diseases, as well as protecting them from soil borne pests. All that is needed for papaya  mulch  is the  dried leaves  of the papaya tree. Unfortunately, papaya grows in a  tropical climate  so many not be so easy to come by, although the Internet is an incredible resource for obtaining the unobtainable. If you are geographically fortunate to have a tree growing near you then simply harvest it of its leaves and then dry them out.There are three ways this can be done: 1. Pat dry any moisture on the papaya leaves, hang them up and leave to air in a dark and dry place. This could take several weeks depending on the climate. 2. Place the leaves on a baking tray and heat at around 225 degrees Fahrenheit, monitoring them closely until the moisture has evaporated but before they become brittle or burn. 3. Alternatively zap them in  the microwave  on a low heat un til dry. Once dry  apply  the  mulch  at roughly around two to three inches thick on  the soil  bed and around the base of the tomato plants. For best results, he  mulch  should be replenished during the summer once the previous  mulch  has decomposed. The effect of papaya leaves as  mulch  is that they bring the soil's pH level to a more neutral range which is the preference of most plants. To make mulch for  tomato plants  from  dried papaya  leaves, you'll need a  mulch lawn mower  and a wood chipping device. By beginning your mulch pile in the autumn months, and continually adding  wood chips  and mulched,  dried papaya  leaves, you'll soon be ready to add  the pile  to the earth  around your  tomato plants  (in late spring or early summer).The best mulches, such as mulch created with  dried papaya  leaves, are used to add height and width to  tomato plants. The nutrients and  chemical composition  of  dried papay a  leaves makes these leaves very effective fertilizers for  tomato plants. Tomato Growing Tips †¢ When planting your tomatoes from seeds, be sure you space the seeds out and give each seed plenty of room to sprout roots and grow. The best tomato growers give each seedling a few inches of space before planting the next seed. If you don't have much soil to grow your tomatoes in, consider planting less seeds, but taking excellent care of the seedlings that are already in place.To get the best results, seeds need plenty of room to  branch  out and lay down roots. †¢ Trimming your plants with garden shears can be a great way to ensure that you get bigger, juicier tomatoes during the growing season. In general, removing leaves from the bottom portion of the  tomato plant  is the best gardening  strategy. It's fine to leave the top leaves as they are when tending to your  tomato plants. Mulching is a clever way to amp up the size and scale of your  tomato plant s, and dried papaya  leaves are terrific natural â€Å"food† for  tomato plants.If you're examining ways to improve your yield of  tomato plants  this year, be sure to think about creating a mulch pile filled with shredded papaya leaves and  wood chips. Discussion of results Based on the data the researchers have gathered, we can see how the set-ups with dried papaya leaf mulch had a higher growth rate than those without. After the allotted time for the experiment, all the plants from the mulch set-up grew at least 7cm higher with the highest growing 8cm higher. On the other hand the set-ups without mulch only grew at least 5cm taller with the highest growing only 7cmtaller.Set-ups Set-up  Parts| Before  Mulch  Exposure| After  One  Week| Tomato plant| Light  Green  leafs  | Dark  Green  leafs,  taller| Dried Papaya Leaf Mulch| Damp| Dry,  bad  smell| Summary All plants are still healthy  because  of the color of  their leaves. By wee k 3, the average height of the A plants is 4. 462 cm (2. 44 cm more than initial average height). The average height of the B plants by week 3 is 5. 990 cm (3. 804 cm more than initial average height). Conclusion The researchers therefore conclude that using dried papaya leaves as mulch for tomato plant helps tremendously in its growth rate.Dried papaya leaves have nutrients that help nurture the soil so that it will be more favorable conditions for the growth of tomato plants. Also the researchers found out that dried papaya leaves are basic and therefore help make the soil in which tomato plants grow more neutral. This is important because studies have shown that neutral pH levels of soil are the most favorable conditions for a tomato plant to grow in. Recommendations 1. All plants could be at  the same initial height at the  start of the experiment to  have more consistent data and to see the growth with more precision. . Based on our further research, testing dried papaya leafs as insect repellants would be a more effective topic than testing its characteristic as alkaline mulch. 3. There could have been a set-up in which a commercial fertilizer was used to be able to compare the mulch's attributes to fertilizers used by farmers all around the country. 4. The set-ups could have been observed for at least two more weeks to check if  the growth rate for both set-ups would have remained constant or changed over  time.

Radio Astronomy in the Desert

Radio Astronomy in the Desert If you drive across the Plains of San Agustin in central west New Mexico, youll come across an array of radio telescopes, all pointed toward the sky. This collection of big dishes is called the Very Large Array, and its collectors combine to make a very large radio eye on the sky. Its sensitive to the radio part of the  electromagnetic spectrum  (EMS). Radio Waves from Space? Objects in space give off radiation from all parts of the EMS. Some are brighter in some parts of the spectrum than others. Cosmic objects that give off radio emissions are undergoing exciting and energetic processes. The science of radio astronomy is the study of those objects and their activities. Radio astronomy reveals an unseen part of the universe we cannot detect with our eyes, and its a branch of astronomy that began when the first radio telescopes were built in the late 1920s by Bell Labs physicist Karl Jansky. More about the VLA There are radio telescopes around the planet, each tuned to frequencies in the radio band that come from naturally emitting objects in space. The VLA is one of the most famous and its full name is the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. It has 27 radio telescope dishes arranged in a Y-shaped pattern. Each antenna is large - 25 meters (82 feet) across. The observatory welcomes tourists and provides background information about how the telescopes are used. Many people are familiar with the array from the movie Contact, starring Jodie Foster.  The VLA is also known as the EVLA (Expanded VLA), with upgrades to its electronics, data handling, and other infrastructure. In the future it may  get additional dishes.   The VLAs antennas  can be used individually, or they can be hooked together to create a virtual radio telescope up to 36 kilometers wide! That allows the VLA to focus in on some very small areas of sky to gather details about such events and objects as stars turning on, dying in supernova and hypernova  explosions, structures inside giant clouds of gas and dust (where stars might be forming), and the action of the black hole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. The VLA has also been used to detect molecules in space, some of them precursors to pre-biotic (related to life) molecules common here on Earth.   VLA History The VLA was built in the 1970s. The upgraded facility carries a full observing load for astronomers around the world. Each dish is moved into position by railroad cars, creating the correct configuration of telescopes for specific observations. If astronomers want to focus on something extremely detailed and distant, they can use the VLA in conjunction with telescopes stretching from St. Croix in the Virgin Islands to Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaii. This larger network is called the Very Large Baseline Interferometer (VLBI), and it creates a telescope with a resolving area the size of a continent. Using this larger array, radio astronomers have succeeded in measuring the event horizon around our galaxys black hole, joined the search for dark matter in the universe, and explored the hearts of distant galaxies.   The future of radio astronomy is big. There are huge new arrays built in South America, and under construction in Australia and South Africa. Theres also a single dish in China measuring 500 meters (about 1,500 feet) across. Each of these radio telescopes is set well apart from the radio noise generated by human civilization. Earths deserts and mountains, each one with its own special ecological niches and landscapes, are also precious to radio astronomers. From those deserts, astronomers continue to explore the cosmos, and  the VLA remains central to the work being done to understand the radio universe, and takes its rightful place with its newer siblings.